Tag: Building Material

Building Material – Stone ! Testing of Stones !

When stones are proposed to be used in very big and costly structures, some of very important properties need to be tested strictly in accordance with the procedures laid down by the authorized institutions like Indian standards (BIS) .

Selection of Samples :

The sample shall be selected from the quarried stone or taken from the natural rock & shall be of adequate size to permit the separation of the requisite number of test pieces.

Following tests performed to find suitability of a stone for its use in any engineer works :

1) COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST :

Samples : Cubes of 5cm side or cylinders of 5 diameter and of same height. The top and bottom surfaces shall be made as possible by polishing.

Procedure : The tests shall be carried out on dry as well on as on saturated sample.

For saturating, the samples of proper dimensions shall be immersed in water at 20c -30c for 72 hours and then tested after removing all moisture by rubbing with dry cloth.

For dry samples, samples of proper shape and size shall be placed in an oven at 105c for 24 hours and then cooled in a desiccators (and not in open air ) to room temperature.

Loading :  Each sample shall be loaded individually by placing it over the loading plate of a UTM (Universal testing machine). The load will be increased very gradually, at a rate of 140kg/cm2 per minute or as prescribed in the code. This process (of loading) is continued till the sample bricks, i.e. when first crack appears in it and the sample stops taking any further load.

Calculations : Compressive strength, co, shall be calculated by using relationship:

                                                         Co = p/a

  p = load at failure point ; a = cross sectional area of the sample

The result of each sample is expressed in kg/cm2. Six sampls should be tested from each type of rock and the average value is taken as compressive strength.

2) TRANSVERSE STRENGTH TEST :

Sample : A bar of 20 cm length, 5 cm thickness, and 5 cm width which must be properly dried and smoothened by polishing.

Procedure : Five to six such samples are prepared from the representative rock specimens and tested individually. The sample is placed on two horizontal supports given at the ends leaving a clear distance of 15 cm between the two supports. It is then loaded transversely and the load is applied gradually.

Calculations : The load “w” at which the sample starts breaking is noted and used to calculate modulus of rupture of the stone using following relationship:

                                                                   R = 3wl/bd2

w = load at failure; l = length of the sample ; be = width of the sample and d = thickness of the sample.

3) WATER ABSORPTION : (refs. Is – 1125- 1974)

Sample : Take about 1 kg samples from representative stones that have been crushed and made to pass through is 20 mm sieve

Procedure : The selected and weighed sample is placed in distilled water in a glass vessel at room temperature (20 degree C-30 degree C ) for a period of 24 hours.

The sample is then taken out, piece-by-piece, surface dried with a damp cloth and the air-dried by spreading over a damp cloth for ten minutes. The sample is then weighed, ;let this weight be W1

The sample is then dried in an oven at 105 degree C at 105 degree C +10 degree C for at least 24 hours and then cooled by placing in a desiccators. It is weighed again let this weight be w2.

Calculations : Water absorption, or absorption value is calculated by the relationship:

                                                                               (W1-W2)/ W2 x 100

4) WEATHERING RESISTANCE (is ref.1125-1974) :

This test determines the resistance of stones to deterioration due to exposure to cold humid temperatures favourable for formation of ice and salt crystals within their pores.

Samples : Cubes of 5 cm sides or cylinders of 5 cm diameter prepared from representative rocks and given a fine polish at the ends are used as test samples.p

Procedure :

(i) Take three samples, previously dried in an oven at 105 degree c + 5 degree c for 24 hours and cooled to room temperature in a desiccators. The sides of the samples are smooth finished. The so dried samples shall be weighed. Let their dry weight be W1.

(ii) Each test samples shall be freely suspended in water for 24 hours at 20 degree c-30 degree c and then weighed in that condition. Let this weight be W2.

(iii) The test sample shall be taken out of water and surface dried and weighed in air; let this weight be W3.

(iv) Each sample is placed separately in a dish made of porcelain or glass containing a solution of 2 gm powdered gypsum in 25 ml of water .

(v) These three dishes so prepared with the test samples are placed in a ventilated oven at 105 degree c+ 2 degree c for 5 hours (or till the evaporation of water of solution).

(vi) The dishes containing the samples are now removed from the ovens. They are allowed to cool naturally to room temperature. This process completes one cycle of treatment prescribed under the test.

(vii) Each sample is placed in a fresh dish in a new solution of 2 gm of gypsum in 25 ml of water and the same process of placing in ventilated oven is repeated.

Thirty such cycles are repeated on all the three samples.

(viii) Each sample is first cleaned by a stiff brush to remove superfluously sticking gypsum and then immersed in clean water for 24 hours.

(ix) Each sample is taken out from water, surface dried and weighed fourth time and fifth time.

Fourth time in air (W4)

And fifth time (W5) in a suspended state in water

Calculations: as a result of 30 cycles of drying in presence of gypsum solutions, each sample is likely to undergo some changes in its absorption and in its volume. The greater the changes, the lower is their resistance to weathering or, in other words, higher is the weathering of stones.

The absorption values are given as described :

Original Absorption (A1) = ( W3 -W1 ) / W1 x 100

Final Absorption ( A2) = ( W4 – W1) / W1 x 100

The volumes of the test specimens :

Original Volume V1 = (W3 – W2) / D

After 24 hours immersion

Final Volume after 30 cycles ( V2) = (W4 – W5) / D

(d = density of water at the time of recording)

5) DURABILITY OF STONE :

This is almost like test 4 except that in this Case the solution used is that of sodium sulphate  decahydrate.

Samples : Take 3 cubes of 5 cm sides or cylinders of 5cm dia. From the representative rocks. These shall be dried by placing in an oven for 24 hours at 110 degree c + 10 degree c.

Test procedure :

  • The dried test specimens are first weighed in dry condition. Let this weight be w1.
  • They are then suspended in a saturated solution of sodium sulphate decahydrate  at room temperature for duration of 18 hours.
  • They are then taken out of the solution, air dried for half an hour and then dried in an oven at 105c+5c for 4 hours.
  • The samples are then cooled to room temperature. This completes one cycle of the test.
  • The above process (ii-v) is repeated on the samples as selected at (i) for 30 cycles.
  • After thirty cycles, each sample is thoroughly washed to remove any sticking sodium sulphate . it is then weighed finally let this weight be W2.

This may be in any case less than W1 the lose in weight calculated in percentage terms as follows is a qualitative measure of durability of the stone.

Calculation :

(W1 – W2 ) / W1 x 100

Greater the loss in weight, poorer is durability.

Building Material – Stone ! Characteristics of Stone – Part 3

1.) Appearance :

The Stone which are to used for face work should be decent appearance. These should be capable of preserving their colour uniformly for a long time.

The Stone should have a uniform & pleasing colour & free from cavities,cracks,flaws & patches of loose & soft materials.

2.) Strength :

Stone has sufficient crushing strength to withstand the load of superstructure.Generally n’t less than 1000 kg/cm2.

3.) Hardness ,Toughness & Resistance to abrasion :

Stone are used for staircase , pavements, road metal or railway ballast should be sufficient hard,tough & resistance to abrasion.

4. ) Durability :

It is durable enough to resist the effect of weathering agencies. They should have fine grained , compact & crystalline structure.

5.) Texture :

Stone has suchg texture are strong & durable.

6.) Work ability :

Stones to be used for ornamental carving and architectural work , should be easily & economically dressed.

7. ) Seasoning :

Stone is used for interior work also so it should be proper seasoned because the presence of moisture makes stone soft & liable to an early decay when used in structural work.

8.) Porosity :

Stone should have less porosity. It should not absorb water more than 5% of its own weight when kept immersed for 24 hours.

9.) Resistance to Fire :

Stone should be able to resist high temperature. Its mineral constituents should have equal coefficient of expansion.

10.) Specify Gravity :

Stone to be used on heavy engineering works,docks,gravity,dam etc. should have high specify gravity.

11.) Resistance to Electricity :

Stone should be Non -absorbent like marble & slate so that they can offer good resistance to electricity.

Building Material – Stone ! Classification of Stone/ Rock

Stone/Rocks are classified in the following three ways :

1) Geological Classification

2) Physical Classification

3) Chemical Classification

A) Geological Classification : Based of formation of Rocks & further classified three types :

i) Igneous Rock

ii) Sedimentary Rocks

iii) Metamorphic Rocks

i) Igneous Rocks :

The rocks formed directly by solidification of molten material , either on surface or the surface of earth called Igneous Rocks.

Ex : Granite, Basalt, Trap & Delorite.

Formation of Igneous Rocks :

At a certain depth , the temperature of material with in the earth’s crust become so high that the existing material may acquire a molten state is called Magma.

When the molten material out from earth called Lava. When the molten condition change due to temperature, pressure & chemical composition ) surrounding the magma, it changes into a solid state in the form of simple solid masses known as Igneous Rocks.

These rockes divided further three classes :

  1. Plutonic Rocks
  2. Hypabyssal Rocks
  3. Volcanic Rocks
  1. Plutonic Rocks : formed due to cooling of magma at a considerable depth from earth surface. The cooling is slow & the rock posses coarsely grained crystalline structure. Ex Granite.
  2. Hypabyssal Rocks : these rocks are formed due to cooling of magma at a relatively shallow depth (2-3 KM) from the earth surface. The cooling is quick & possess finely grained crystalline structure. Ex. Delorite
  3. Volcanic Rocks : Formed due to pouring of magma at a earth surface. The cooling is very rapid. Hence these rocks are extremely fine grains in structure.

They frequently contain some quantity of glass which is a non crystalline material. Ex. Basalt.

ii) Sedimentary Rocks / Stratified & Aqueous Rock  :

these formed by consolidation/break of particles of the pre- existing rocks, under the effect of weather agencies (ice,water, air, sun heat , gases etc) are called sedimentary rocks.

These are most widespread rocks found covering a great part of earth.

Ex. : Gravel, sandstone, lime stone, lignite etc.

Formation :

  1. Disintegration of pre-existing rocks under the effect of weather agencies.
  2. Transported by these natural agencies to river beds , lake basin, seas & ocean or in suspension to other place.
  3. Setting down the suspended particles or precipitation of the soluble constituents.
  4. Compaction and consolidation of the deposited sediments either due to pressure or chemical action like silica, lime ,iron etc.

Sedimentary following four types of deposit occurs :

A) Residual Deposits

B) Sedimentary Deposits

C) Chemical Deposits

D) Organic Deposits

Residual Deposit : Some portion of product of weathering remain at the site of origin known as Residual Deposits.

Sedimentary Deposits : The soluble products of weathering are carried away in suspension and when such products are deposited, they give rise to the sedimentary deposits.

Chemical Deposits : Some material carried away in solution may be deposited by some phsio – chemical processes such as evaporation , precipitation etc.

Organic Deposits : Some portion of the product of the weathering gets deposited through the agency or organisms.

iii) Metamorphic Rocks :

The rocks formed from the pre- existing rocks with in the earth crust, under the influence of variation in temperature or pressure are called Metamorphic Rocks.

Ex : Marble  , Slate & Gneiss etc.

Formation :

The pre- existing rocks within the earth crust don’t change their state so long as their temperature& pressure remain unchanged known as Metamorphic rocks.

  1. Marble : Lime Stone
  2. Slate : Shale
  3. Quartzite : Sand Stone
  4. Gnesis : Granite

Following four types metamorphic occur with various combinations of heat , uniform pressure & directly pressure :

A.) Thermal Metamorphism – The heat is the pre-dominant factor.

B.) Cataclastic Metamorphism – At the surface of earth, the temperature are low & metamorphism is brought about by directed pressure only.

C.) Dynamo – Thermal Metamorphism – There is a rise in temperature with increase in depth. The heat in combination with stress, bring about the changes in rock.

D.) Plutonic Metamorphism : The stress is effective only upto a certain depth. This is due to the fact that rocks become plastic in nature at certain depths. The metamorphic changes at great depths are therefore brought about by uniform pressure & heat.

2) Physical Classification : Based on physical properties.

Further classified into three types :

  1. Un-Stratified Rocks :The rocks which don’t show distinct signs of layers and cannot be easily splited up into the layers are called Unstratified rocks. The structure may be crystalline granular ex : Granite, Basalt & traps etc
  2. Stratified Rocks : The rocks which show distinct signs of layers and can be easily splited up into layers are called Un-Stratified Rocks. Ex : Sand Stone , Lime Stone etc
  3. Foliated Rocks : The rocks which can be splited- up into thin sheets or in a definite direction known as as foliated rocks.

Ex : Slate , Schist etc.

3.) Chemical Classification :

Further classified into three types :

1.) Siliceous Rocks : The rocks having silica (SiCO2) or sand as their major constituent are called Siliceous Rocks.

These rocks are hard & durable. They aren’t easily affected by the weather agencies. Ex: Granite , Sandstone , Quartzite etc.

2.) Argillaceous Rocks : The rocks having Alumina (Al2O3) or clay as their major constituent are known as argillaceous rocks. These rocks may be dense and compact or may be soft like mud stone etc.

3. ) Calcareous Rock : These rocks having calcium carbonate (CaCo3) or lime as their major constituent are called calcareous rocks. The durability of these rocks will depend upon the constituents present in the surrounding atmosphere. Ex : Lime Stone, Marble & Kankar etc.

Building Material – Stone & Uses of Stone – part 1

Building Stone :

A natural material of construction obtained from rocks by any suitable method is call Stone & which is used for construction of structure called Building Stone. Stones are naturally occurring (compact, solid & massive ) building material.  

Building Stone are obtained from a quarry by disintegration of Rocks. The Good Stone are not easily & cheaply available everywhere/ every state & are difficult to handle because of heavy in weight.

Uses :

 Now a  days , brick in cement mortar & cement concrete are replacing stone as a building material.

  1. Construction of heavy & permanent engineer structure such as dam, docks, harbours, light houses, abutments & pier of bridges etc.
  2. Their uses for building work in hilly areas, where a good quality of stone is easily & cheaply available.
  3. Stones used as an aggregates for concrete.
  4. Slabs for paving floors.
  5. Flags for paving streets.
  6. Ballast in railway tracks.
  7. Road Metal
  8. The pyramids of Egypt , The Temple of Jagannathpuri, The Taj Mahal ,The Red Fort ,The great China Wall etc.  hundred of historical building are made of stones.

Building Material – Good Brick Requirement / Qualities : Part 6

  1. It should have proper proportions of sand, silt and clay.
  2. It should have uniform shape , size & colour.
  3. Brick Should be hard enough so that it is not scratched by fingernail.
  4. A sharp metallic sound indicates good burning.
  5. It must be homogeneous.
  6. It should have sufficient plasticity so that bricks can be properly and conveniently moulded with sharp and well defined edges.
  7. It must be free from lumps of lime or nodules of kankar.
  8. It must be free from pebbles, grits and lumps of earth.
  9. It must free from alkaline salts, kallar  or reh etc.
  10. It must not contain vegetable and organic matter.

Building Material – Bricks & Composition of a Good Brick Earth : Part 5

A good brick earth can easily be moulded  and dried without cracking and warping.

A good brick earth should have the following composition:

  1. Alumina or clay 20 to 30 percent by weight.
  2. Silica or sand 35 to 50 percent by weight
  3. Silt 20 to 35 percent weight.
  4. Remaining ingredients which include : Lime (cao) , Oxide of iron ,Manganese oxide , Manganese , Sodium potash etc.                  1 to 2 percent by weight

Alumina :

It is the principal constituent of every kind of brick earth. A good brick earth should contain about 20 percent to 30 percent of alumina.

It imparts plasticity to the brick earth, which is essential for proper moulding of bricks alumina or clay in brick earth shrinks and cracks on drying. It also warps and becomes very hard on burning unless mixed with sand.

Silica :

A good brick earth should contain about 50 percent to 60 percent of silica. Sand alone is in fusible but it fuses in the presence of lime and oxides of iron at kiln temperature.

Sand or silica in brick earth prevents the shrinkage, cracking and warping of bricks. It also makes the bricks durable. Excess of silica makes the bricks brittle and weak.

Lime :

A small quantity of lime not exceeding 5 percent is desirable in good brick earth.

It helps to bind the particles  of brick earth together. It also reduces shrinkage of bricks.

Oxide of Iron :

A small quantity of oxide of iron to the extent of about 5 to 6 percent is desirable in good brick earth and binds the particles of clay together.

It also provides the required red colour to the bricks on burning but excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue.

Magnesia :

Small quantities of magnesia in bricks of yellowish colour and reduce shrinkage. But excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

Manganese :

The presence of manganese in small quantity in brick earth makes the bricks darker or even black.

Building Material : Fire Brick Classification – Part 5

Classification of Fire Bricks : Following three Types :

Silica fire bricks / Acidic Bricks :

These are acidic in character 95 % Silica & their raw material is pure quartz (sio2); or sandstone of high silica content. The moulded units are burnt to around 1500c. Manufacture from Sand Stones, Quartzite etc.

Uses : Lining of furnaces to resist the action of acidic slags.

Magnesite Fire Bricks / Basic Refractories :

They are classed among the basic refractories. Principal raw material is magnesium oxide for which the rock dolomite is a major source.

Bauxite Fire Bricks :

These also form a very important class of basic refractories. They are made from the rock bauxite. (al2o32h2o) which may be mixed with some clay (fire clay type).

Uses :

Blast Furnace, Copper Furnaces etc.

Chromite Fire Bricks :

Neutral class of Refractories. Raw material used for these bricks is a mineral called CHROMITE.

This mineral is a double oxide of chromium and iron in its composition for making refractories some alumina and silica are also added to make a typically neutral material chromite fire bricks are capable of resisting both the acidic and basic environments in a furnace. These find extensive applications in the steel making furnaces.

Building Material – Bricks ! Brick Type of Perforations or Cavities :

Three Following Types of Perforation or Cavities Bricks :

  1. Perforated bricks
  2. Hollow bricks
  3. Channeled bricks

Perforated Bricks :

These form a modern class of building bricks.

Four perforated bricks of white, yellow and red colors with round and rectangular holes on a pallet with bricks on the background other bricks on a warehouse

In perforated bricks cylindrical, rounded or rectangular holes are made in the bricks after the moulding  stage. These holes are called perforations.

They are properly spaced from the side of the brick, minimum distance being 15mm. further, distance between any two perforations is not less than 10mm the volume of the perforations. May be as much as 20-50 percent of the total volume of the brick.

Advantages :

These bricks are light in weight.

Less quantity of clay is required for their manufacture;

Less time is required for drying and burning of perforated bricks.

  • These offer better resistance against rain penetration and better insulation against heat. As such they are ideally suited for tropical countries.
  • Efflorescence is least in perforated bricks.
  • These are specially suitable for construction of brick panels in- multi-storeyed structures.

Hollow Bricks :

A brick also called cavity brick or cellular brick has a few well- defined sets of cavities with specified dimensions made in the body of the brick.

Its net weight may be only one- third to one- half of the solid brick. It is important that the thickness of brick wall near the cavity should not be less than 2 cm. Hence cavity extends throughout the body of the brick.

The hollow bricks are made from special type of brick clay (which should have higher clay content).

Advantages :

  • Being light in weight, they can be handled more conveniently and the output of the mason may be three to four times compared with ordinary bricks.
  • They offer better insulation against heat and sound.
  • They are ideal and economical for non- load bearing walls, e.g in partition walls.

Channel or Gutter Bricks :

They are actually special purpose bricks having a continuous central semicircular cavity or depression running through their length very often they are glazed to make them impervious.

These find use in the laying of drains.

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Building Material _ Bricks ! Shapes of Bricks ! Part 2

 SHAPES OF BRICKS :

  • King Closer : the brick is so cut that it has length and width on one side only.Uses splayed jambs,blunt corners of walls.

  • Queen Closer : it is also a cut brick. The cut is lengthwise so that brick has only one half of the length of the full bricks. Uses bonding of brick works.
  • Squint Brick : it is also cut brick.the portion of cut forms angles other than right angle. Uses exterior or interior corners are to be built at some angle and also for ornamental purposes.
  • Splay Bricks or cant bricks : these have a level or portion taken off, widthwise, lengthwise, or in both directions. Uses for pillars , on top course of plith,on exterior walls etc.
  • Plinth Header : it has a full length on one face. On the other  face, a slope (bevel) is made from 3/4th of the length (D)
  • Plinth Stretcher : it has slope from one half of the width that extends along the entire length (E).
  • Plinth Return : it is a combination of both the header and stretcher beveling (F).

  • Coping Bricks : when a coping is to be provided to a wall, a special shape may be desired. The chamfered brick, the half round brick and the saddle back brick are some common coping bricks.
  • Bull Nose : it is otherwise a standard brick having one arris or edge rounded. Uses for decoration purposes.
  • Cow Nose : it is similar to a bull nose but has both edges on the side rounded. It may be called a double bullnose. Use for ornamental purpose.
  • Miscellaneous Shapes : these include bricks shaped for very specific purpose (not covered above) as for arches and circular walls, chimneys and culvets and wells.

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Building Material – Brick & Bricks Classification

Classification of Bricks :

Conventionally , the Bricks are classified in the following two types :

  1. Sun dried or Katcha Bricks :
  2. Burnt or Pucca bricks :

Sun Dried or Katcha bricks :

The bricks dried only in the sun after their moulding are called sun dried or Katcha Bricks.These should not be used at places exposed to heavy rains.

Uses : These are suitable for constructing temporary houses,enclosures etc. in rural area.

Burnt or Pucca Bricks :

These brick burnt in a clamp or klin,after moulding and drying are called burnt or pucca bricks.

These are hard,strong and durable.

Uses : These are generally in permanent works.

These further classified into the following four types :

FIRST CLASS BRICKS :

CHARACTERISTICS :

(i) Well burnt having even surface , perfectly rectangular shape & free from saline deposits.

(ii) When two bricks are struck against each other a ringing- sound is produced.

(iii) Its compressive strength shall not be less than 140kg/cm2 and its absorption after 24 hours, immersion shall not exceed 20 percent.

(iv) It should show a uniform appearance,colour , texture and structure when seen on fracturing.

(v) They shall be clean,smooth & free from cracks,chips,grits,holes , nodules of lime or kankar etc.

(vi) They shall not show any sign of efforescence on surface when dried in the shade.

(vii) They shall not absorb water more than 20% by weight after 24 hours immersion in cold water.

(viii) They shall have a minimum crushing strength of 105kg/sq.cm.

Uses : Every kind of masonry work, flooring etc. Where strength and durability is desired. They are also used for face work,reinforced brick work and as ballast for base concrete work in floors.

SECOND CLASS BRICKS :

CHARACTERISTICS :

  • Well burnt, even slight over burning is accepted.
  • Metallic-ringing sound is also a must in this case as well.
  • In shape, rectangular, but slight irregularity is permitted. Surface may be slightly uneven.
  • Compressive strength shall not be less than 70kg/cm2 and absorption value between 20-22 percent.
  • Slight difference in structure on fractured surface is admissible.
  • They have fine , compact ,uniform texture.
  • They may have slightly chips , flaws or surface cracks but shall be free from lime & kankar nodules.
  • They are not so hard & strong.
  • They shall have a minimum crushing strength of 70 kg/sq.cm.
  • They shall not absorb water more than 22% by weight after 24 hours immersion in cold water.
  • They shall not show any sign of efflorescence on surface either in wet or in dry state.

Uses : These used in unimportant situations where bricks are hidden from front views as in the case of interior walls. They are never used in reinforcement brick work or face works of building.

THIRD CLASS BRICKS :

CHARACTERISTICS :

  • Poorly and unevenly burnt, that is, may be over burnt or under burnt.
  • On striking a dull thud (rather than metallic sound) is produce.
  • Appearance, shape and size are also non- uniform and irregular.
  • Compressive strength lies between 35- 70 kg/cm2 and absorption between 22-25 percent.
  • Yellowish in colour & may be distorted and have round edges.
  • They are soft & weak in strength.
  • They shall not absorb water more than 25% by weight after 24 hours immersion in cold water.

Uses : These used in inferior and temporary buildings & in place not subjected to heavy rains . They are sometimes used for scaffolding and centring in the construction of building.

JHAMA OR FOURTH CLASS / OVER BURNT BRICKS :

CHARACTERISTICS :

  • Irregular in shape and dark in colour, which is due to over burning.
  • Quite strong in compressive strength, generally above 150kg/cm2 and low in porosity and absorption.
  • They shall be over burnt , vitrified & distorted bricks.
  • They shall be dark in colour.
  • They shall be irregular in shape & size and may be available in the form of lumps.
  • They shall be hard & strong.
  • Produce metallic sound when struck with one another.

Uses : They are used as aggregates for making base for concrete to be used in foundations, floors etc. and as road metal for soling coats.

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